Science Nutrition Degrees For The Health-Minded Individuals

The need for solid nutritional advice seems more imperative today than ever before. With fast-paced lifestyles as the norm, becoming a nutritionist and obtaining a degree in this field will allow a student to educate people about healthy eating on a communal scale or provide personalized support. Students who major in nutrition will learn useful skills that they will be able to apply to assisting others in need of enhanced health and disease control.

Many people who want to get their degrees in nutrition are motivated to help others improve their lives. A nutritionist can advise clients on how to eat balanced meals and often devote time to understanding how nutrients may cure, prevent, or alleviate symptomatic problems of the human body. Students will also learn how to plan meal programs and supervise meal preparation. They will be able to counsel patients, whether in individual or group settings and they will become aware of the effects food has on athletic and mental functions.

Most students striving to obtain their B.S. in Nutrition Science or a related B.S. field are aware that opportunities exist to further their education on post-graduate levels. Master degree programs and doctoral coursework are readily available. Should students receive advance degrees beyond a particular state's minimum requirement, they will most likely have the best job opportunities. Furthermore, a Bachelor's degree is usually necessary if a student wants to become licensed.

College students in this major may expect to take classes in nutrition, foods, chemistry, institution management, biology, physiology, and biochemistry. Additional suggested courses are statistics, computer science, health, psychology, economics, and sociology. High school students who think they might want to pursue this degree path should take biology, mathematics, health, and communications.

Increased public awareness of diabetes and obesity are resulting in subsequent demands for nutritional counseling and therapy. Many full-time nutritionists work the standard forty hour weeks, although some work weekends, too. The work environments vary from kitchens to offices, depending on where people are employed.

Employment in the nutrition field is anticipated to rise nine percent through the 2008-2018 decade and grow at a faster than average rate. The growth is attributed to elevated emphasis on disease prevention and treatment. Numerous jobs in hospitals, outpatient care centers, physicians' offices, and nursing care facilities comprise half of all jobs in this area of expertise.

Government agencies and special food services provide additional employment opportunities that may be explored. Research, administrative, and management positions are other arenas in which students with Bachelor's in nutrition science may be hired. While salaries vary due to geography, community size, experience, and education level, the career outlook for students graduating with their nutrition degrees is good in upcoming years as more workers retire or leave the occupation for personal reasons.

Acquiring a Bachelor's degree in this field can better prepare graduates for exciting and lucrative careers as nutritionists. Taking courses in nutrition will open your eyes to the fascinating ways of how to fuel the human body. Also, a Masters degree should be a great consideration. The intrinsic satisfaction these students experience in their jobs is a bonus, as they assist others in adopting more beneficial health habits. The need for solid health advice is great, yet, the rewards of changing or even saving lives is greater!

The Discovery of the Nucleus

The word atom is no longer being used in its correct context, originally it came from early Greek term 'atomos' to translate to mean 'indivisible'. Thanks to a discovery by British Physicist/Chemist Ernst Rutherford in 1909, this idea began to break down as science started to take a look inside the so-called indivisible atom.

Rutherford began his 'gold foil experiment' in the midst of the JJ Thomson 'Plum Pudding' stage of atomic theories. The experiment involved directing a radioactive source emitting alpha-particles towards gold foil. The gold foil was used because it is very thin so the target is nearly a line of atoms. The area was surrounded by a zinc sulphide screen which will give off a flash of light when hit by an alpha particle. Essentially, the experiment was designed to find out where the alpha particles went after colliding with the nucleus.

The energy levels of the alpha particles were around 6,000,000 eV compared to 0.02 eV of the nearly stationary gold atoms. Because of this the pattern on the detector was fairly unremarkable, most of the alpha particles passed through the gold atoms and whenever an alpha particle struck a gold atom, it simply moved it out of the way. There were however occasional exceptions, 1 in 10,000 alpha particles were deflected by over 90áµ’, these were completely unexplainable with the current impression of the atom.

Using Coulomb's Law (strength of force between two charged particles is inversely proportional to their distance apart squared), Rutherford's team found that the radius between the positive alpha particle and the positive force deflecting it must have been smaller than the radius of the atom in order to achieve the 300N repulsive force required to deflect it by over 90áµ’.

This calculation was extremely significant, it meant that for a neutral gold foil atom, there must be a small, concentrated area of positivity which is surrounded by negativity. Since the electron had already been discovered by Thomson at the end of the 19th century, they must be orbiting the centered positivity, thus the nucleus was born.

This was paradigm changing, the whole concept of the atom was changed and nuclear physics was now well under way, as with many brilliant scientific discoveries it just led to more questions which needed to be answered;

Why don't the electrons and nucleus attract each other and merge? What is keeping the positive subatomic particles together?

These questions needed an answer if the Rutherford 'Nuclear' model of the atom was to be accepted, which kick started nuclear physics and a new dawn for atomic discovery.

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Dinosaurs That Were Bigger than Tyrannnosaurus Rex

Tyrannosaurus rex, otherwise known as T. rex is perhaps the most famous creature known from the fossil record. It is certainly a very well-known dinosaur, but ironically new evidence has emerged over the last decade or so that challenges some of the long held public perceptions regarding this prehistoric monster.

T. rex the World's Most Popular Dinosaur?

Ask a small child what their favourite dinosaur is and it is quite likely that they will say Tyrannosaurus rex. This dinosaur is often referred to as the "superstar predator" of the Late Cretaceous, but just how big and fearsome was this dinosaur? Were there other dinosaurs that were bigger than T. rex? Does this dinosaur deserve the name "king of the tyrant lizards"?

Tyrannosaurus rex is a member of the Tyrannosaurid dinosaur family. This type of meat-eating dinosaur evolved sometime in the Jurassic and as a group they remained relatively insignificant until the Late Cretaceous when they evolved into a number of giant forms and become the apex predators of the northern hemisphere, most notably in Asia and North America. As to the exact origins of the Tyrannosaurs, this remains unclear. Eotyrannus (Eotyrannus lengi) known from a single skeleton discovered on the Isle of Wight (England), shows a number of Tyrannosaur characteristics and some scientists have suggested that this group of dinosaurs originally evolved in Europe. However, some scientists argue that the Tyrannosaurs originated in eastern Asia, citing fossil discoveries such as Guanlong (Guanlong wucaii) from Late Jurassic strata in China as evidence that the ancestors of T. rex were from the Orient.

As a group, the Tyrannosaurids had large, heavy, broad skulls. The jaws were lined with massive, slightly recurved teeth with both sides of each tooth serrated like a saw blade. The teeth, particularly those of later, larger Tyrannosaurids such as T. rex, Gorgosaurus and Daspletosaurus were thickened and in cross section rather D-shaped. The front limbs were very much shorter than in other groups of Theropods such as the Allosaurids. In the last of the Tyrannosaurs, these arms ended in two-fingered hands, with each finger having a sharp claw on the end. The tail was long and muscular and helped these creatures balance. Ironically, T. rex is relatively well represented in the fossil record when compared to other Late Cretaceous meat-eaters. A number of good quality, almost complete skulls are known, the largest of which measures a fraction over 1.7 metres in length.

The skull of Tyrannosaurus rex was powerful enough to crack bone. Assessments on the bite force of this predator indicates that this animal had one of the strongest bites of all animals known to science. The heavy lower jaw had a flexible joint in the middle of it, this trait is found in a number of other unrelated dinosaur meat-eaters. This joint allowed the jaws to flex so that the mouth could be opened very wide to take in extra large pieces of meat and bone. The large orbit (eye socket) indicates that this dinosaur had excellent vision. Measurements taken regarding the approximate size of the optic nerve entering the brain from the eye suggest that this nerve was at least two centimetres thick in large specimens. This would indicate that a great deal of data was being transmitted from this dinosaur's sense of sight into the brain. It had forward facing eyes, giving T. rex stereoscopic vision, a terrific advantage especially when it is considered that T. rex could view the world from fourteen feet in the air - its head perched on top of its powerful neck.

In terms of size, the largest Tyrannosaurus rex known is a robust form, that is currently mounted in the Chicago Field Museum (Chicago, United States). Believed to be a female, this specimen measures over forty-two feet in length and scientists have estimated that this particular animal could have weighed as much as 7,000 kilogrammes. Discovered in the Badlands of South Dakota in the early 1990s this specimen is the largest mounted Tyrannosaur skeleton in the world. However, rumours of an even bigger Tyrannosaurus rex fossil are circulating around scientific circles. The skull, although not completely excavated is believed to be a good six inches bigger than that of Chicago Field Museum specimen.

Even with this new Tyrannosaur discovery, there were a number of other dinosaurs that were much bigger than T. rex. Firstly, a number of plant-eating dinosaurs were much, much bigger, but even in the world of flesh eaters there are several candidates to compete with T. rex for the title of largest meat-eating dinosaur known to science.

Remaining within the Tyrannosaur family we can come across two potential rivals to Tyrannosaurus rex - animals such as Tarbosaurus (Tarbosaurus bataar) from the Late Cretaceous of Mongolia. The larger of the two Tarbosaurus skeletons mounted in the Palaeontological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Moscow (Russia) measures nearly forty feet long. Then there is the newly discovered Chinese Tyrannosaurus, known as the "Tyrant from Zhucheng city" - Zhuchengtyrannus magus. This Late Cretaceous meat-eater was only formally described in April of this year. It is known from an almost complete skeleton recovered from a dig site over the last twelve months or so. The lower left jawbone (dentary) is almost complete and measures over a metre in length, indicating an animal perhaps as big as Tyrannosaurus rex.

Then we have to consider the other contenders, dinosaurs that were carnivores and bigger than Tyrannosaurus rex. Perhaps the best known of these is Giganotosaurus (Giganotosaurus carolini). The fossils of this dinosaur were first found in Argentina in 1994 and formally described a year later. Giganotosaurus was member of the Allosaur family, it has been estimated to be nearly fifty feet in length and perhaps weighed as much as eight thousand kilogrammes. Then there is Carcharodontosaurus (Carcharodontosaurus saharicus), from north Africa. Although, known from only fragmentary material this Allosaur has been estimated to be around forty-six feet in length.

Finally, there is the little known predator whose fossils were found in the famous Cleveland-Lloyd quarry in the Morrison Formation (Utah). This dinosaur, also a member of the Allosaurids is known as Saurophaganax (S. maximus). The few bones assigned to this genus were discovered before the Second World War, but they were not scientifically studied in detail until the mid 1990s. Little is known about this dinosaur, but estimates suggest that this meat-eater exceeded forty feet in length, rivalling the biggest Tyrannosaurids.

For the time being, T. rex remains the most famous of all dinosaurs, but not the biggest land predator of all time. That is until the next T.rex fossil is discovered.

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Time Travel Model of Quantum Mechanics

The Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics is baffling, while the many-worlds interpretation is unrealistic. The time travel model attempts to provide a comprehensible explanation.

In this model we assume that the presence of a particle causes vibrations in the time coordinate of spacetime. The wave function may be identified with the amplitude of these temporal vibrations. The square of the wave function is proportional to the strength of these vibrations and gives the likelihood of finding a particle in the vicinity.

The time waves at present overlap the time waves of a moment ago, and so on, so that a particle becomes spread out over all the spacetime between the last interaction and all possible points of the next interaction. If a particle's time coordinate is uncertain, its position and momentum are also uncertain.

When an interaction occurs, the particle is no longer available for time travel and the wave function collapses backward in time to the point of the last interaction. Since we cannot observe the past, the collapse appears instantaneous. The collapse is itself not observable, so nothing observable changes in the past.

The Schrodinger equation states that the frequency of temporal vibration is proportional to the energy. Its complex nature is a mathematical way of describing vibrations. The many-dimensional nature of the wave function is a consequence of the Hamiltonian formulation. There is no implication that the world is actually complex or many dimensional.

The relativity of simultaneity causes a uniform vibration to become a traveling wave when seen from a moving coordinate system, which is why the momentum is obtained by taking the spatial derivative of the wave function.

The antisymmetric Fermi statistics of the wave function under exchange of a pair of identical fermions is a way of stating that the particles cannot occupy the same space at the same time. If all fundamental particles are spin one-half rishon fermions, then the symmetric Bose statistics are simply obtained by exchanging rishons two pairs at a time.

Let us consider two classic examples. In the two-slit experiment, a particle may go through one slit, then back in time, then through the other slit. In the case of two quantum entangled particles, when one is observed, the wave function for that orientation collapses backward in time, leaving only the wave function for the opposite orientation.

If a time wave curved around into a circle much smaller than its wavelength, the entire whirl would appear to oscillate back and forth in time. The whirl could not dissipate due to conservation of energy and angular momentum, or other quantum numbers. We suggest that these whirls are in fact the rishons. It is also a law of nature that a rishon cannot disappear unless it meets its antirishon. This model explains how a particle can produce time waves: particles simply are trapped time waves.

The observed intrinsic spin of a rishon is far greater than what could be possessed by a small rotating mass. In our model, the internal rotational phase velocity of the time waves may be much greater than the speed of light, since no information is conveyed. This may explain how a rishon can have a large angular momentum but little mass. Since a rishon is a cloud of time waves, it would have eigenstates of angular momentum. When its angular momentum (or energy) is measured, one would always find it to be an eigenstate, in accord with general principles of quantum mechanics. This cannot be understood if a rishon is viewed as a point particle.

The V rishon may be the lowest possible energy state, while the T rishon may be the highest possible energy state, perhaps because the phase velocity has slowed down to the speed of light. Any slight instability would cause intermediate states to gain or lose energy and move toward one extreme or the other. This may explain why there are just two stable rishons, light and heavy. The bare mass may be much larger than the observed mass, due to renormalization. Unfortunately it is not known how to calculate this, so hard numbers cannot be given.

The large spin of a rishon eliminates the spherically symmetric S states, leaving the three P states to correspond with the three colors. The T rishon constantly emits and absorbs a cloud of V anti-V particles, corresponding with gluons and photons as the pair carries net color or not. The V rishon does not have enough mass to do this. The weak force arises from the transfer of a group of rishons, the W particle. Small temporal vibrations of a particle could be considered quantum gravity, which might help stabilize the particle. These vibrations might also cause a large-scale distortion of spacetime, similar to thermal expansion. We would perceive this distortion as classical gravity. The Planck equation simply states that this distortion, which we call gravity, mass, or energy is proportional to the frequency of a particle.

A rishon might have a polar temporal field caused by the circular motion of time waves, analogous to a magnetic field. Particles would be ejected preferentially along the direction of this field, because time flows in that direction, thus violating parity. The temporal field would be aligned with or against the direction of external time, corresponding to rishons or antirishons. Because of the time difference, the two would have slightly different reaction rates, producing an excess of hydrogen over antihydrogen, which have the same rishonic content. The photon and gluon are symmetric with respect to matter and antimatter, but the W is not, so only the weak force violates parity.

Time dilation and the relativity of simultaneity are features of special relativity, while in general relativity mass influences the flow of time and gravitational radiation consists in part of time waves. Therefore our concept of time waves has some precedent. Quantum mechanics and general relativity both describe disturbances of spacetime and together provide a complete picture. Everything can be explained as waves, whirls, or bends in spacetime.

When a particle interacts, it stops time-travelling into the past, because the coherence of the time waves is broken. The wave function collapses, or disappears, backward in time. It is as though the wave function never existed at all, so it vanishes instantaneously in all frames, in agreement with the fundamental principle of relativity, that there is no preferred frame.

In the rishon model, all neutral matter has equal amounts of T and anti-T rishons. Under sufficient pressure, theses would be forced together and annihilate, so matter would convert to photons or neutrinos and escape before a naked singularity could form, or in a big crunch.

The collapse of a wave function is an irreversible process, so quantum mechanics does not conserve information, in a black hole, or anywhere else. Gravity is a curvature of spacetime, so the need for gravitons is questionable.

In the rishon model, a photon consists of a V anti-V pair, so, like the neutrino, it might have a small rest mass.

If the wavelength of a rishon's internal time wave is smaller than the rishon, the rishon would still oscillate in time, but in a more complicated way, perhaps giving rise to the effects associated with spin.

The P states mentioned above are conjectured to be states of intrinsic spin having spin one-half.

The photon and vector bosons have different masses because they are made of different rishons. Symmetry breaking is not needed.

Particles are disturbances in spacetime and according to general relativity would therefore have mass. The Higgs mechanism is not needed.

It would be of great interest to discover and study the equations which govern the structure of the rishons.

Jay Daniel Shelton attended the University of British Columbia, where he received a Masters degree in Physics. He is a independent investigator and resides in Fruita, Colorado.

http://jayshelton.trideja.com/